What do you really know about the world's most mysterious continent? While you may think you understand this bland land, do you know how it's governed? Did you learn how it was discovered, like you were taught the discovery of North America? How about the kinds of wildlife it harbours, the same way you are familiar with the elephants and giraffes of Africa?

For the most part, the continent of Antarctica has had a low-profile history in the public eye, thanks to it's peaceful and relatively uneventful past. Antarctica is the only continent on Earth which has never seen war, has a fully protected environment, and is devoted  to scientific research. It is also the only continent which no country may claim, and is internationally regulated.

A brief history of "no man's land" begins not that long ago, first showing up in history in the early 1770s. Prior to this time, the idea of Antarctica was purely a hypothetical, mysterious land mass only referred to as "Terra Australis" (or 'southern land', as it translates in English). While the true discovery of the icy continent has been debated for decades - largely due to disagreements on what counts as a discovery (i.e. a distant sighting, island landing, ice shelf landing, or mainland landing), the title of first sighting is widely considered to go to either Captain Bellingshausen (a Russian expedition leader), Edward Bransfield (a sealer-turned-explorer born in Ireland but who served in the British Navy), or Nathanial Palmer (an American sealer). All of these sightings are reported to have taken place during 1820. The first person to have contact with land on the continent is allegedly John Davis, a sealer and explorer that first set foot on the continent in 1821. He stated in his personal log on February 7, 1821 "…open cloudy weather and light winds a standing for a large body of land in that direction SE at 10 am close in with our boat and sent her on shore ……the land high and covered entirely in snow… I think this southern land to be a continent", marking the start of a new age of Antarctic exploration.

These are only a few important figures, however many tried and failed to reach the continent even before this. For example, Captain Cook set out in search of this unknown land in 1772 with the goals of finding the mysterious land, creating alliances with the people, and studying the environment/biosphere. His ships could not weather the harsh icebergs and winter conditions, and his crew was forced to turn back.

The Beginning

Following the first landing, French explorer Dumont d’Urville arrived in Antarctica in 1837, and was the first to map part of the continent. He covered much of the Antarctic Peninsula, and was the first French person to ever set foot in the icy south.

The next great adventurer came a few short years later in 1839. James Ross conducted a lengthy three year expedition, breaking through enough sea ice to eventually enter the open water of what is now known as the Ross Sea, a very deep and large bay located between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land.

Another notable expedition of this time was the United States Exploring Expedition from 1838-42, led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes. This expedition faced numerous challenges, including navigating through thick fog, heavy ice, and treacherous storms, but despite the hazardous conditions, the expedition was able to return with 180 charts of Antarctic coastline and make scientific observations along the way.

With 1882 came the first ever International Polar Year - an international effort to study the North Pole that saw amazing collaboration across many countries. While Antarctica was not studied (and barely even mapped at this time), it set the ground rules for future studies.

Following a declaration from the 5th International Geographical Congress in 1895 that concluded Antarctica to be the most important  unexplored land mass, the period from 1893 to 1913 saw a steep incline in the number of expeditions to the continent. It is appropriately referred to as the "heroic age".

International Geographical Congress of 1895

Occurring on August 3, 1895, the International Congress' 1895 conference was the 5th of it's kind ever held, with the first being conducted in August of 1871. This congress discussed various geographical issues, and attendees declared that Antarctica was "the greatest piece of geographical exploration still to be undertaken". The result of this conference inspired a number of expeditions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These expeditions included:

• 'Belgica' Expedition 1897-99 (Belgium)

• 'Discovery' Expedition 1901-14 (Britain)

• French Antarctic Expedition 1904-07 (France)

• 'Nordenskjold' Expedition 1901-03 (Sweden)

• 'Nimrod' Expedition 1907-09 (Britain, led by Shackleton)

• 'Terra Nova' Expedition 1910-13 (Britain, led by Scott)

• Roald Amundsen's South Pole Expedition 1910-12 (Norway)

• Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14 (Australia, led by Mawson)

• 'Endurance' Expedition 1914-17 (Britain, led by Shackleton)

Early 20th Century

Breaking into the 20th century, this brave new age brought Shackleton to southern waters. Now famous for his 1907 expedition titled 'Nimrod', his crew made palpable headway by bringing in motorized vehicles for the first time, climbing Mt Erebus, making many new discoveries, and reaching a new record for the farthest South reached by any human (at 88° 23’ South).

At three pm on December 15, 1911, history was made as Roald Amundsen became the first person to ever reach the South Pole.

He and five other men were accompanied by their 52 dogs that were brought in order to carry supplies during the journey. Unfortunately this elated success was overshadowed by the grueling reality of the journey; only 11 dogs returned, the rest being killed by the crew to feed both themselves and other dogs. In a harsh environment without any other available food, it was the only option left, and was good planning on Amundsen's part to have a source of food if needed.

Following WWI (1914-1918), interest in the Antarctic from many world powers picked up. Many countries were involved in expeditions during this time, including Australia, New Zealand, and Britain. For example, the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) ran from 1929-1931 and resulted in mapping, oceanographic exploration (and the discovery of new sea shelves), and advancing Antarctic geographical studies. As well, the British Graham Land Expedition led by John Rymill took place from 1934-37, and focused on collecting a number of geological surveys. Other expeditions were done by both America (Richard Byrd and Lincoln Ellsworth) and Norway(Lars Christensen) involved aerial observations and flights on the continent.

In WWII this interest was strongly renewed, mainly due to involved countries hoping to secure a stronger geographic upper hand in the war. By 1944, multiple stations had been built, with England leading. Since 1944, Antarctica has been continually inhabited.

Following the end of the war, countries that had invested in Antarctica continued to develop their programs, and this support is partially responsible for the immense success of 1957's International Geophysical Year (IGY).

International Geophysical Year (IGY)

Planning for the IGY began in 1950, as a suggestion to hold a third International Polar Year (IPY) amidst the Cold War. The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) agreed that they were ready to explore more than just the poles, and established a committee to start planning. The planning period stretched out over seven years, and the resulting IGY was finalized to run from July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958. The rushed window following the end of planning resulted largely because of it's depth; one of the many fields included was solar studies, which meant it was crucial to line up the study's dates with the Sun's solar maximum (only occurring once every 11 years). Among the 11 scientific fields of Earth study, included glaciology, oceanography, gravity, seismology, and meteorology. These were all prominent in the birth of Antarctic study. It was the first time the continent had ever been seriously and rigorously examined, and only then did it's potential for science become truly apparent.

Over the course of 18 months, 67 nations contributed to and participated in the research. Information from this time period allowed many world data centers to be established, one of which was the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).

Antarctic Treaty of 1959

Immediately following the global scientific triumph of the IGY, many countries came to the conclusion that they did not want the IGY to come to an end. Friendly and effective communications and teamwork inspired the birth of the Antarctic Treaty; an agreement to continue studying Antarctica indefinitely, with the hopes of maintaining the same level of camaraderie and shared scientific benefits.

Negotiations for the treaty started immediately following the end of the IGY between the 12 main countries that had pioneered it. When it was signed on December 1, 1959, history was made.

The treaty consisted of 14 articles, explicitly stating:

• The continent is to be used only for peaceful purposes.

• Any military presence, tests or bases are strictly prohibited.

• Guarantees the continued right to scientific research, just as during the IGY.

• Encourages international cooperation in science and the sharing of information, technology, and personnel. Research results must be made freely available to all.

• Any territorial claims made to the land previous to the agreement/IGY are suspended; no nation may claim the land or its sovereignty.

• No new actions can be made to diminish or enhance claims during this suspension (for as long as the treaty stands).

• Nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste are strictly prohibited.

• Any ship, station, or presence by a party may be audited and inspected by another party at any time.

• There must be frequent meetings to update and discuss the treaty.

• Parties must give advanced warnings of their plans and expeditions.

• Sets a process for modifying the treaty, and places procedures to settle disputes.

• States that any UN member may be added to the treaty.

The 12 original countries to sign the treaty were:

• Argentina

• Australia

• Belgium

• Chile

• France

• Japan

• New Zealand

• Norway

• South Africa

• United Kingdom

• United States

• USSR

Within the Antarctic Treaty, Antarctica is officially referred to as “A natural reserve, devoted to peace and science”. The significance of this treaty has been recognized as one of the most successful international agreements ever. Even though the treaty stated after its 30-year expiration (in 1991 due to technical terms), any party may call for a 'review conference' to change or nullify the treaty, as of 2025 no party has done this. In fact, for the 30th anniversary they even introduced a declaration to show their continuing support and willingness to work together. There are now 52 signatory nations, of which 28 are consultative parties that have a right to block consensus in any vote.

Environmental Reform

The three decades between 1970 and 2000 were a busy time for Antarctica. Starting in 1972 with the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS), this period saw a rapid increase in the protection and safety of the Antarctic ecosystem. As a result of over a century of sealing in Antarctic waters, the wildlife populations of rare species was dangerously low. Originally proposed by the UK for the conservation of fur seals, a consensus was reached and the treaty was signed on June 1, 1972 in London, England.

The treaty included some key points, such as:

• It applies to all area south of 60⁰ latitude.

• Applies to:

  • Southern elephant seal

  • Leopard seal

  • Weddell seal

  • Crabeater seal

  • Ross seal

  • Southern fur seals

• Specified seals may not be killed or captured.

• Contracting parties must exchange information and scientific advice.

Since this treaty was signed, the population size of Antarctic seals has steadily recovered, proving the treaty's efficiency. It's outstanding and tangible progress set in motion the next major environmental treaty of 1982: The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, or CCAMLR.

Taking place ten years later, and following the annexation of sealing, krill fishing was becoming quite popular. Since nearly the entire marine ecosystem of Antarctica relies on krill, overfishing it has the potential to cause catastrophic issues.

While they did not want or need to rule out krill fishing entirely, it was clear that some guidelines needed to be put in place.

The CCAMLR mandates that a commission and scientific committee must work together in order to maintain appropriate and healthy levels of sea life, with jurisdiction reaching as far as the Antarctic Convergence. Their revolutionary approach (at the time) to sustainability not only focused on maintaining suitable numbers of fish, but also considered the effects that would ripple up the food chain and it's subsequent effects on other species.

Some key points from the treaty include:

• Highlighting the importance of recognizing impacts on the environment.

• Notes the urgency of conserving species and ecosystems.

• Recognizing the need for further research and understanding.

• Claiming international cooperation is required in order to achieve such a feat.

The treaty also states “Believing that it is in the interest of all mankind to preserve the waters surrounding the Antarctic continent for peaceful purposes only and to prevent their becoming the scene or object of international discord”.

At the same time, Antarctica's rich mineral deposits were attracting the attention of countries who wanted to mine it. It had been proposed by the UK and New Zealand nearly a decade earlier to start mining, and at this point there were no regulations in place to prevent it.

Signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty System decided to temporarily ban the activity until it could be discussed, primarily due to the possible negative environmental and political ramifications.

Parties agreed to start negotiations in 1981, but took seven years for nations to reach a consensus. When they did, it adopted the name of the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA).

CRAMRA would allow the mining of minerals, with some loose guidelines. Nearly every country wanted to get their hands on these rich deposits, and from 1981-1988 the number of signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty rapidly increased.

Fortunately, this drew the attention of multiple environmental protection organizations, such as Greenpeace and the World Wide Fund for Nature. These groups of civilians put up an impressive and public resistance, resulting in Australia and France feeling pressured not to sign. Since the Antarctic Treaty stipulates that all agreements must be in consensus, even one of these countries refusing to sign caused the agreement to fail and saved Antarctica's rich natural minerals from being harvested and sold.

CRAMRA inspired the environmental protection act that followed two years after it’s collapse, known as the Madrid Protocol. The safeguards in place now, ban any mining for non-scientific purposes and does not expire. The earliest a review may be called is in 2048.

The Madrid Protocol is the more common name for the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1991. It designates Antarctica as a "national reserve, devoted to peace and science", and installs many protections. The Madrid protocol is rigorous but effective, with harsh rules including:

• All activities and projects must consult with and adhere to the environmental rules.

• All activities must have their environmental impact assessed prior.

• Established an environmental committee for the continent.

• States that any Antarctic ‘fauna or flora’ must have a permit in order to be sampled or seriously interacted with.

• Declares numerous protected species.

• Waste management of stations is regulated.

  • Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polystyrene packaging beads and pesticides are prohibited in the Antarctic.

• Discharge from ships (such as greywater or any oily mixtures) is regulated.

• Leaves other means to enact protection, such as providing frameworks for Specially Protected Areas, Antarctic Specially Managed Areas, and Historic Sites and Monuments.

• All activities must be planned in accordance with:

  • Avoiding adverse affects on weather or climate

  • No negative effects on water or air quality

  • Cannot further threaten or endanger species in any way

  • Cannot degrade areas of biological, historic, aesthetic, or wilderness significance

• Activities are actively monitored to watch for and study any unforeseen impacts

21st Century

Although in recent years Antarctic activity has been much quieter, the International Polar Year of 2007-2008 was anything but.

The IPY of 2007 was introduced to commemorate 50 years since the success of the last IGY in 1957. It included scientists from 63 countries and consisted of 6 International Polar Year (IPY) themes:

1. Determine current environmental status of poles

2. To understand past and present change, predict future change

3. Understand how interlinked global processes are to the polar regions

4. Explore new frontiers of science in Poles

5. Gather data on the rest of the earth (and it’s interior) from different perspectives

6. Study the cultural and historical impacts of humanity’s past actions at the poles and their consequences on global relations, diversity and citizenship

The urgency of this study was especially driven by the decreasing amounts of snow and ice present at the poles, as well as the subsequent decline in wildlife populations of penguins and other species.

The positive social effects of 2007's IPY radiated out on an international level, with many young scientists from many different backgrounds and countries creating relationships with one another that will last a lifetime. Many previously omitted minorities from polar studies participated as well, including women and indigenous peoples taking initiatives and roles of leadership to drive the program forward.

Outreach to the general population surrounding IPY increased enthusiasm and support for cooperation and science from the public and from citizens, and the data gathered is still used today to advise corporations, governments, and individuals on the global environmental dangers of their actions and corrective measures that can be taken to accurately minimize their impacts.

Today, scientific milestones are being reached every year as research continues. Antarctica's short but exhausting history has been a long-inspiring story of cooperation from the beginning, from team expeditions to over half a century of global cooperation and peace. It is an example of the good that humanity is capable of when we work together instead of against each other. The future is already here, you just need to know where to find it.

Sources

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British Antarctic Survey. “The Antarctic Treaty Explained.” Bas.ac.uk, NERC BAS, 2015, www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/the-antarctic-treaty/the-antarctic-treaty-explained/.

---. “The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.” British Antarctic Survey, NERC BAS, www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/the-antarctic-treaty/the-convention-on-the-conservation-of-antarctic-marine-living-resources/.

National Research Council. Lessons and Legacies of the International Polar Year 2007-2008. National Academies Press EBooks, National Academy of Sciences, 8 Aug. 2012, nap.nationalacademies.org/read/13321/chapter/2#2. Accessed 10 Aug. 2024.

Science Learning Hub. “Antarctica: Early Discoveries – Timeline.” Science Learning Hub, The University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato, 30 Sept. 2016, www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1693-antarctica-early-discoveries-timeline.

Uri, John. “65 Years Ago: The International Geophysical Year Begins - NASA.” NASA, 5 July 2022, www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/65-years-ago-the-international-geophysical-year-begins/.