Introduction
Antarctica is supported by many non-governmental organizations (NGOs), often led and executed by civilians from all around the globe. These organizations are all intently invested in the wellbeing, conservation, and protection of the icy continent and it's ecosystems, and without them Antarctica would not be the pristine environment that exists today. The hard work and dedication from these associations contributes significantly to the success, coordination, and safety of Antarctica.
How It Works
Many organizations contribute in different ways, each working and supporting each other's goals. Even though they have no official say in ATCM meetings (as they are not signatory or consultative parties to the Antarctic Treaty System), they still interact by informing parties with scientific evidence, sharing important data on populations and research, and publicly advocating for the good of the Antarctic biosphere.
Key Non-Governmental Organizations
1. Greenpeace
Publicly advocates/protests, provides research and educational material.
In the 1980s, Greenpeace kickstarted their "World Park Antarctica" campaign.
Around this time they started setting up research on the continent.
Advocated for krill protection (as nearly the entire Antarctic food chain relies on krill) to prevent overfishing, was successful in lowering the access to commercial fishing companies.
Greenpeace has been involved (though it’s ASOC involvement) in the “Antarctic Ocean Legacy: A Vision for Circumpolar Protection” publication.
This publication lays out a plan to create 19 marine reserves that would cover 40+% of the Southern Ocean.
2. The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)
Foundation
James Barnes, a lawyer and environmental advocate, discovered in the mid-70s that some members of the Antarctic Treaty were privately creating a framework for mineral and gas prospecting in Antarctica.
In response, he rounded up 25 members to found ASOC in 1978.
The initial campaign was to publicize the meetings and minerals framework.
In 1980, these meetings were very private, with no observers or public documentations of discussions. Only 13 nations were allowed into the meeting.
ASOC successfully publicized this in the 80s when they obtained a copy of an early draft and released it publicly.
They then alerted other nations such as India and Brazil to this by bringing proof, which led to debates at the UN.
Public pressure eventually led the mineral mining negotiations to fall though and the convention died.
In 1991, ASOC was granted the ability to observe the Antarctic Treaty System and has been an annual attendee to it’s Consultative Meetings ever since.
Supports Antarctic conservation both on the continent and in the Southern Ocean.
Mission
They are motivated by Antarctica’s huge (and often overlooked) impact on the global climate.
Particularly focused on climate change and human activities. Involve themselves in high-level communications and provide data to regulatory bodies.
Educating through outreach and a comprehensive educational website on Antarctica’s ecosystem and the effects of human presence.
Monitors and maintains databases on climate change, tourism, fisheries, and pirate fishing.
Advocating through public campaigns.
They are also an active member of the Commission for the Conservation of Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR):
During 1990s-2000s, involved in CCAMLR efforts against unregulated and illegal fishing of the Patagonian Toothfish (AKA Chilean Sea Bass).
Also worked to reduce the number of seabird accidental catches/harm done while fishing carelessly.
They reduced lights used at night, added weight to lines, and banned the dumping of offal (unused internal organs from butchered animals).
All of this made a huge difference to the mortality rate of albatross and petrel each year in the Antarctic region.
ASOC is now an international foundation backed by many smaller groups working together, including:
3. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
Overview
SCAR was founded in 1958 by the International Council for Science (ICSU).
SCAR was also inspired by the International Geophysical Year of 1957-58.
In order to join SCAR, the application must come from a nation's official governing body.
Members can either be full or partial, with the former being able to vote and the latter not.
All members can participate in activities regardless of their status.
Meetings held every two years in differing countries.
As of 2024, SCAR consists of 46 nations and 9 International Scientific Unions (ISUs). They include:
International Astronomical Union – IAU
International Geographical Union – IGU
Union Radio Scientifique International – URSI
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry – IUPAC
International Union of Physiological Sciences – IUPS
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics – IUGG
International Union of Biological Sciences – IUBS
International Union for Quaternary Research – INQUA
Mission
To support youth in Antarctic environmental research, SCAR offers a number of fellowships and prizes.
Awards are given annually, and are worth up to $15, 000 USD.
The 'Visiting Professor Scheme' is directed towards scientists with a more matured career, and grants the opportunity to mentor in other member countries - sharing, teaching, and contributing to the visited member country’s research.
The goal of this program is to strengthen international research networks and relationships to provide a global understanding and open-source learning, as well as giving smaller or newer initiatives a chance to grow with the help from an experienced supporter.
SCAR's values (as stated on their website) include:
Their aim for a collaborative international stage, where Antarctic research benefits all and excludes no one.
Important decisions driven by scientific evidence first and foremost.
“[To] be the leading non-governmental, international facilitator and advocate of research in and from the Antarctic region”, “ To provide objective and authoritative scientific advice to the Antarctic Treaty and other bodies such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and to bring emerging issues to the attention of policy makers.”
SCAR is responsible for creating, organizing and promoting scientific initiatives for research on Antarctica and in the Southern Ocean, providing factual information and advice to the Antarctic Treaty System, as well as other bodies that are present in Antarctica, and, providing scientific advice to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
4. International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)
Overview
IAATO stands for the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators.
Unlike other non-governmental bodies, IAATO was founded by and consists of individual member companies, as opposed to nations or scientific unions.
IAATO was founded in 1991 by 7 companies that commonly toured the Antarctic region.
Meetings are held annually and self-managed by members.
It is less an organization than an alliance between commercial companies.
Although IAATO does not technically hold any power, nor can it serve any form of punishment that do not abide by the regulations, it is supported by over 100 expedition & tourism companies that have all unanimously agreed to the regulations for the good of the planet, the wildlife, and the maintaining the continent’s untouched and unique beauty.
Contributions
IAATO companies must abide by strict regulations regarding vessel capacity, avoiding interference with wildlife, and biosecurity measures taken during landings.
Many regulations are detailed to specific landing sites and areas.
As part of IAATO efforts, many commercial and expedition companies commonly carry equipment to aid in wildlife tracking and report sightings/images of wildlife to aid in tracking of known pods and other sea life.
They may also act as transport vessels for scientists and researchers, carrying them along on cruises and then dropping them off at research locations along the way.
As there are still many unmapped areas of shoreline/coves and passages, in good weather commercial ships may tentatively explore and map a new area that other ships (and companies) and researchers can then add to or reference in the future.
Many companies donate part of their profit (and encourage passengers to donate as well) to environmental funds.
IAATO's mission is to maintain environmentally safe tourism through regulating commercial activity, educate passengers and gain favour for wildlife by allowing passengers/civilians to safely experience the continent, support science in the region by working with researchers and programs, and maintain knowledgeable and responsible staff through developing international evaluation and certification programs for Antarctic tourism staff.
IAATO Specifications
Restrictions and regulations can apply to:
Number of people allowed onshore.
Staff: Passenger ratios.
Wildlife watching and approach distance guidelines.
Allowed activities and time allocations.
Required reports on visits from each tour, both before and after.
Staff training and passenger briefings.
Experience levels of staff and bridge officers.
Contingency planning.
Emergency and medical plans.
There are several categories of vessels that companies are around to run, and each have different restrictions in where they can go and whether they can facilitate landings or not.
C1 – Traditional expedition ships that carry 13-200 passengers and make landings.
C2 – Mid-size vessels that carry 201-500 passengers and make landings.
CR – Vessels that carry more than 500 passengers and do not make landings (i.e. cruise only).
YA – Sailing or motor yachts that carry up to 12 passengers.
5. The Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)
Overview
COMNAP has been overseen by by it's "Secretariat" in the University of Canterbury (in New Zealand) since 2009.
Previous to this, it has been based out of DC, USA and Tasmania, Australia.
It was established in 1998 due to growing interest in the continent.
To be a COMNAP member, nations must first be signatories to the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol, and must also be active in ongoing research of some form.
COMNAP believes in leading by example, but members are also legally bound to adhere to sustainable policies.
They are observers in annual ATCM meetings, along with SCAR and the CCAMLR.
Although originally founded with 22 member programs, COMNAP now consists of 33 members and 4 observer programs.
Their Work
Their Antarctic Forest Project aims to harness relationships with local communities , programs, and countries surrounding Antarctica to plant trees (such as the bottoms of South America, Australia, and South Africa), to effectively create an “Antarctic Forest” surrounding Antarctica that cushions the impacts of climate change on the continent and delays/slows the rapidly changing and warming environment.
COMNAP Antarctic Rings collaboration is a joint effort with SCAR to aerially map coastal regions of the continent.
Antarctica InSync is a project that aims to build an online, 'framework for international collaboration'.
COMNAP Asset Tracking System (CATS) is a network that vessels and aircraft in the Antarctic region can voluntarily join. Built for COMNAP to better keep track of activity, it is also accessibly to any member of the network and aids in collaboration between vessels, and helps to easily and quickly determine the nearest vessels in a crisis.
HPAI (Avian Flu) Preparedness, Monitoring & Response keeps tabs on the spread of the current Avian Flu crisis in the Antarctic region and provides up-to-date documents and guidelines to help parties safely navigate specific sites.
Contributions to Member Vessels
COMNAP held a notable icebreaker workshop for it's members in 2013, highlighting the best designs and features to make new vessels as efficient and environmentally friendly as possible.
Following this, they publicly published the new builds they endorsed for research from participating nations, in an effort to make information more openly accessible.
New vessels have included fuel saving, noise reduction, as well as other environmental technologies.
Every vessel that navigates polar waters is given a classification, according to the International Maritime Organization's (IMO's) Polar Code.
The Polar Code includes 7 Polar Classes (PCs), deciding what kind of water the vessel is rated for. PC1 is the most extreme rating (all polar waters, all seasons), and PC7 is the weakest vessel rating (only summer and fall seasons, non-permanent ice).
Some examples of the ships that were collaborated on and endorsed by COMNAP that include cutting-edge environmental features:
BAP Carrasco (BOP-171), Peru Navy
PC 7 rating.
Powered by a diesel-electric propulsion system with 4 total thrusters, which is considered low-emission.
Rated SILENT-A class for underwater noise.
Contains two Search and Rescue (SAR) inflatable boats for emergency aid to others.
L’Astrolabe, French Southern and Antarctic Lands Administration
PC 5 rating.
Replaces role previously performed by two vessels, reducing emissions and improving efficiency.
Double hull protects environment from spills/pollution in the case of an accident.
Electronic injection system within engine reduces fossil fuel usage.
Exhaust is cleaned through selective catalytic reduction (SCR). Ammonia is reacted with the nitrogen oxide produced, creating Nitrogen and water.
Ultrasonic system used on hull instead of harmful paints that can chip off and harm the environment.
RV Kronprins Haakon, Norwegian Polar Institute
PC 3 rating.
Low noise, reduced-resistance hull.
Double-hull to prevent contamination in case of accident.
Low-emission output engines.
Two helicopter pads, can be utilized for SAR.
MV Xue Long 2 , Polar Research Institute of China
PC 3 rating.
SCR exhaust cleaning.
Noise and vibration reduction.
RSV Nuyina, Australian Antarctic Division
PC 3 rating.
Can service two research stations in one trip, reducing emissions.
Diesel-electric propulsion system.
Includes different propulsion settings (dynamic positioning, silent transit, and open water transit, and ice breaking).
These allow for optimized fuel usage and reducing noise pollution.
Treats ballast water, grey water, and oily water. Protects oil tanks.
Negates nitrogen and sulphur oxide emissions by cleaning exhaust.
Reduces light pollution at night to reduce effects on wildlife.
Closed fresh water lubrication system in stern tube to reduce oil leakage chances.
Reduced noise pollution.
6. Commission for the Conservation of Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
Overview
Conservation of Marine Living Resources (CAMLR) is a treaty that was founded in Australia in 1980.
It was mainly founded due to the overhunting of marine life in the 19th and 20th centuries.
The CAMLR (the treaty) has 33 articles, describing its relationship to the Antarctic Treaty as wall as its structures and regulations.
Applies to all finfish, molluscs, crustacean and sea birds south of the Antarctic Convergence.
It is important to note that the CCAMLR does not have jurisdiction over Antarctic whales or seals.
The commission for the CAMLR (CCAMLR) was then created in 1982 to see that the CAMLR is upheld and to have annual meetings to discuss financials and projects/work.
The CCAMLR is comprised of 27 member countries, as well as the European Union.
How They Work
They make important decisions on fishing limits, protected areas, and more.
The CCAMLR includes a scientific subcommittee that advises the main committee so that it can make informed decisions that will best support the environment and biosphere.
All members of the scientific committee are also on the main commission.
The commission is legally required by the convention to take full consideration of the scientific committee’s advice when making decisions.
The scientific committee focuses on:
The ecosystem as a whole.
Fish stock.
Statistics and modeling.
Fishing incidental mortality.
Acoustic surveys and analysis.
CCAMLR also works with other resource management groups, especially that for seals and whales.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the southern ocean are all regulated by the CCAMLR.
MPAs are proven to be the most efficient way to limit human damage to natural ecosystems.
Proposals are suggested by member countries, then the Scientific Committee evaluates and builds on the proposal with the member country.
When it is believed that the proposal is based on the best available data and science, it is proposed to all member states that then must come to a consensus to finalize the MPA.
The largest MPA is the Ross Sea Region MPA, proposed by New Zealand and the USA in 2012.
Map of Current MPAs:
Source: The Conversation, image by C. Brooks, licensed under CC BY-ND.
7. Southern Ocean Observing System (SOOS)
Overview
The SOOS was founded in 2011, when 25 researchers came together with the goal of making an accessible framework for researchers working behind the polar front of the southern ocean.
At previous meetings it had been noticed that there were sufficient gaps in data and evidence.
Up until then, much of the data was being gathered indirectly by satellite of computer simulation.
Issues surrounding ocean currents and temperatures (key in understanding marine life) were difficult to accurately determine.
Because of these issues, as recent as only 2023, 300 scientists held the first ever Southern Ocean Observing Symposium in Australia.
They shared ideas, brainstorming how to leverage international partnerships to create a large and reliable network to work together in gathering this information.
This program was mainly a result of combined efforts between SCAR and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR).
SOOS is not an organization, but a continuous observation system that provides data which many of the above organizations access and use to make decisions.
A multi-national collaboration, since all countries decided that the necessary depth and size of the system could not be created or sustained by an individual country.
How It Works
There are many systems and sensors all over the southern continent and ocean, which all monitor different aspects of the environment.
"Argo Floats" are an example of automated devices that rest 1-2 kilometres below the ocean’s surface, measuring data such as salinity and temperature.
They are not tethered and float freely, however they do not tend to move much because currents are weak at the depths that Argo floats utilize.
The Future of Antarctic Conservation
Although NGOs in the Antarctic area now have strong networks with international government support, they have faced immense roadblocks along the way. In order to create and maintain the support they provide to all parties today, they have experienced decades of setbacks due to limited resources and funding. They have faced political and legal challenges from attempts to block Marine Protected Areas to struggles to gaining a seat in annual ATCM meetings, and have persevered through all of this while facing growing threats to the ecosystems and climate they were trying to protect.
NGOs such as SCAR and Greenpeace have had especially important impacts on the more political side of Antarctic conservation and protection, but all NGOs have made significant contributions to the safety of Antarctic wildlife and helped maximize the efficacy of research.
Their commitment to a better world and refusal to give up on what they believed in in the face of adversity is an inspiration for the rest of us to do better. You can get involved in the things you are passionate about, whether that's Antarctic conservation or not; there is proof that the actions of civilians can make a difference to the course of history.
Sources
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition. “Antarctic Ocean Conservation Body under Pressure to Live up to Its Name.” Prnewswire.com, Cision US Inc., 15 Oct. 2023, www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/antarctic-ocean-conservation-body-under-pressure-to-live-up-to-its-name-301956880.html.
ASOC. “About - Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition.” Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, 15 Oct. 2021, www.asoc.org/about/.
Cooper, John. “Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels - the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition Urges Conservation Actions on World Albatross Day.” Acap.aq, ACAP, 13 June 2020, www.acap.aq/latest-news/the-antarctic-and-southern-ocean-coalition-urges-conservation-actions-on-world-albatross-day.
Frank, Veronica. “Protecting Antarctica, the Heart of the Ocean.” Greenpeace International, Greenpeace International, 21 May 2012, www.greenpeace.org/international/story/7567/protecting-antarctica-the-heart-of-the-ocean/.
Greenpeace. “Protect the Antarctic.” Greenpeace UK, Greenpeace UK, www.greenpeace.org.uk/challenges/protect-the-antarctic/.
International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. “Happy Birthday IAATO - 30 Years Strong!” Iaato.org, International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators, 18 Aug. 2021, iaato.org/blog/happy-birthday-iaato-30-years-strong.
López-Martínez, Jerónimo, and Michael Sparrow. “Science in Antarctica and the Role of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).” J. Black Sea/Mediterranean Environment, vol. 20, no. 2, 2014, pp. 127–136, dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/103607.
Rogan-Finnemore, Michelle, et al. “Icebreaking Polar Class Research Vessels: New Antarctic Fleet Capabilities.” Polar Record, vol. 57, 1 Jan. 2021, https://doi.org/10.1017/s003224742100067x.
It's amazing what these NGOs can do by getting 'competitors' in their fields to cooperate and police their interests. This is one way the Antarctic Treaty between nations has set an example for all peoples to follow.
I am incredibly impressed with the amount of research and information included in this website.